A Look At Burnout Psychology Essay

A Look At Burnout Psychology Essay CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and burnout among nurses working in private hospitals in Malaysia. Theoretical literature related to this relationship will be presented in the first part of this chapter. The existing literature on the topics was examined and key pieces were brought together to establish a foundation for this study. The next part of the review explores the literature which has supported the proposed relationship between EI and burnout among the nurses in Malaysia. 2.2 Burnout The term burnout has its roots in the medical and nursing disciplines. It was first defined by a psychiatrist, named Herbert Freudenberger in 1974. The theory of burnout was developed through his clinical experience by exploring the turmoil that people experience every day. According to Maslach and Jackson (1981a), burnout occurs in the helping professions, such as nursing due to the chronic stress associated with doing work that involves people. Basically burnout occurs as feelings of emotional exhaustion, negative feelings, and attitudes within the job and the increase of negative self-concept. The earliest use of the burnout term in nursing literature was found in the articles published by Seymour Shubin in 1978. Shubin described burnout as hazardous to nursing and all other helping professions. The study of burnout, although not exclusive to nursing, continues to be an important occupational issue for the nursing profession. 2.2.1 Definition of Burnout There are many definitions of burnout, however most definitions share a view of burnout as a state of fatigue and emotional exhaustion, as a result of emotional depletion and loss of motivation. The term burnout that was first coined by Freudenberger in 1974 refers to wearing out from the pressures of work. It was used to describe the experience of employees in professions that needs high degree of people contract. Freudenberger in 1975 further defined burnout as wearing out, failing, becoming exhausted, and it occurs when excessive demands on energy, strength or resources are made. Cherniss (1980) was among the first to describe burnout within human service field who defined burnout as a process that leads to an individuals attitudes and behavior change in negative ways in response to work stress. On the other hand, Maslach (1982) who has extensively researched about burnout has provided the most commonly accepted definition of burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment that can occur among individuals who do people work of some kind. Maslach identified three related themes: (1) painful emotional experiences often resulted in clinical practitioners feeling emotionally exhausted and drained; (2) as a result, they developed negative and cynical attitudes towards their clients; and (3) personal competence suffered resulting in feelings of failure about their ability to work in the health care profession. These three themes were summarized as emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal acc omplishment and later operationalized to measure burnout using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach, Jackson Leiter, 1996). Garrosa, Moreno-Jimenez, Liang and Gonzalez (2008) pointed out that burnout is a specific form of chronic and occupational stress in the professional social services. According to Westman and Eden (1996), studies have shown a strong relationship between work stress and burnout in many occupations. Especially, burnout has been repeatedly linked to job stress in the human service field due to the frequent and intense interactions with clients (Cordes Doughery, 1993; Lee Ashforth, 1996). Additionally, studies have also shown that nurses who experience occupational stress experience greater burnout (Stechmiller Yarandi, 1993). Thus, burnout is related to stress whereby burnout is a reaction to stress. Prolonged and unrelieved work stress often leads to burnout which results in negative attitudes towards work. Freudenberger (1975) postulates that burnout involves physical and behavioral symptoms. Behavioral consequences of burnout include decreased interaction with care recipients, ine ffective absenteeism, and high levels of job turnover (Maslach, 1982; Maslach Leiter, 1997). 2.2.2 Models of Burnout The burnout literature provides several models of burnout. This section describes four models constructed in the early eighties which proceed from the simplest to the most complex model. 2.2.2.1 Cherniss transaction model of burnout Cherniss (1980) was a significant figure of the first wave of burnout researchers and offered a burnout model that articulate transactional imbalance between the personal resources of the giver and the demands of the recipient or situation. Cherniss described burnout as a transactional stress process that involves three stages. The first stage is stress whereby demands placed exceed individual resources for coping. The second stage is strain, the initial emotional response to stress which usually includes feelings of anxiety, tension, fatigue, and exhaustion. Finally, defensive coping occurs which leads to changes in attitudes and behavior such as the tendency of burnout individuals to treat clients in depersonalized way. Two years later, Cherniss modified his model and elaborated on the model that the causes of stress can either be internal or external demands. Additionally, the limited resources contributing to stress can also be external (e.g. availability of time, work space, and equipment) or internal (e.g. skills, knowledge, energy, and personality). In summary, Cherniss theorized that burnout is a coping response in a transactional process that begins with excessive and prolonged exposure to job stress. The uncontrollable stress causes strain in the individual which influences the coping process. If the stress is prolonged or becomes more intense, it will deplete the coping resources of an individual and force the individual to withdraw psychologically. 2.2.2.2 Edelwich and Brodsky: Five stages of burnout Edelwich and Brodsky (1980) suggested five stages of burnout: (1) enthusiasm; (2) stagnation; (3) frustration; (4) apathy; and (5) intervention. At the first stage, employees have great enthusiasm for their new jobs. They do not know much about their job and have unrealistic expectations about outcomes of their effort. Therefore, when the outcome is not as expected, they become disillusioned. During the period of stagnation at stage two, realities of the job become evident. The job is no longer satisfying as it first appeared. Employees are now more concerned with meeting personal needs, working hours, and career development. The third stage is called the period of frustration. Employees begin to question their job effectiveness and the value of their job. The limits imposed by bureaucracy frustrate the individuals and they become dissatisfied with the job situation. At this stage, employees begin to develop emotional, physical, and behavioral problems. Proceed to stage four; employees frustration turns to apathy because individuals feel trapped. On one hand, they feel frustrated by the job situation but on the other hand, they need the salary. The emotional and physical responses of individuals become worse whereby they would avoid clients whenever possible. The final stage is intervention. Nevertheless, it cannot be determined whether this stage would occur in an organization or the individual who is experiencing burnout would recognize their psychological state as undesirable. In summary, Edelwich and Brodsky viewed burnout as an evolutionary process that begins with idealistic enthusiasm and commitment. Subsequently, the loss of idealism, vigor, and purpose is triggered largely by work conditions (Edelwich Brodsky, 1980). 2.2.2.3 Maslach: Burnout caused by social interaction Maslach, a social psychologist, who became a stellar figure in the emerging research of burnout, has provided the conceptual definition that begun the second wave of research. Maslach (1982) described burnout as a three-dimensional syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Another specific contribution Maslach made was the theoretical emphasis on the relational causes of burnout which linked to the social roots of emotional expenditure (Leiter Maslach, 1988; Maslach Leiter, 1997). Maslach (1982) saw that emotional overload and subsequent emotional exhaustion is the heart of the burnout syndrome. Thus, the first response to a stressful interaction with other people is emotional exhaustion. As people become emotionally depleted, they cope by cutting back on their involvement with others. This detached response which called depersonalization is the second aspect of burnout and leads to various negative attitudes and behaviors. At this stage, individuals who experience burnout feel more emotional distress and guilt about how they have treated those that they are trying to help. Finally, the feeling of reduced personal accomplishment which is the third aspect of burnout appears. At this point, the individuals feel inadequate about their ability to treat or help others. They tend to believe that they have failed professionally and chosen the wrong profession. A major contribution by Maslach was the development of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). Maslach and Jackson (1981a, 1981b) developed the MBI, which was one of the first reliable instruments for valid measurement of burnout. MBI is still the most widely-used measure of burnout in current research. MBI assesses psychological burnout and has three different versions, which include one general survey, one for human service professionals, and one for educators. The most commonly used measure of burnout is the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey or MBI-HSS (Maslach, Jackson Leiter, 1996) which was developed to measure occupational burnout among people working in the field of human services. 2.2.2.4 Golembiewski, Munzenrider and Carter: Rigorous scientific research While other models focused on the order in which burnout aspects occur and the helping professions, Golembiewski, Munzenrider and Carter (1983) were concerned to make the study of burnout more rigorous and to broaden the population in which burnout was examined. Golembiewski et al. noticed that research was lacking in terms of empirical investigation of the stages of burnout. To rectify both the lack of empiricism and extend the study of burnout to wider work settings, the authors used Maslach and Jacksons MBI (1981a, 1981b) to measure burnout among nursery school teachers and nurse educators. Golembiewski et al.s results in 1983 suggested that depersonalization occurs first and increases greatly before reduction in personal accomplishment occurs and finally emotional exhaustion follows. Their argument was based on the fact that when people sense a loss of control and autonomy, their self-image is threatened. Initially, individuals may seek constructive ways out of the situation such as leaving the job. However, if the situation persists, they may begin to treat others as objects resulting in depersonalization. This will lead to diminished personal accomplishment and ultimately worsening emotional exhaustion. Based on Golembiewski et al.s findings and discussion of the burnout model in 1983, it can be classified that their model is similar to the earliest version of burnout model proposed by Cherniss (1980). Additionally, based on their model, Golembiewski et al. used a modified version of MBI and administered the instrument to a small population. The results allowed them to propose a model of burnout with eight stages. However, their model did not clarify or simplify the understanding of burnout. They moved to more rigorous methods of data collection and analysis using MBI as measurement instrument and expanded the population of employees to which results can be generalized. 2.2.3 Burnout and Nursing Employees in general experience burnout on the job, especially those in jobs with high contact with people. Nevertheless, nurses are considered at high risk of work-related stress and particularly susceptible to burnout among the different healthcare providers (Keane, Ducette Alder, 1985; Kilpatrick, 1989; Schaefer Moos, 1993; Schaufeli Janczur, 1994; Duquette, Kerouac Sandhu Beaudet, 1994; Farrington, 1995; Decker, 1997; Marsh, Beard Adams, 1999; Koivula, Paunonen Laippala, 2000; Taormina Law, 2000; Shimizu, Mizoue, Kubota, Mishima Nagata, 2003; Jenkins Elliott, 2004; Piko, 2006). This is also proven by the fact that burnout in nursing has received world-wide attention (Demerouti, Bakker, Nechreiner Schaufeli, 2000). Several studies have identified nurse burnout rates are as high as 40-50% (Hapell, Martin Pinikahana, 2003; Vahey, Aiken, Sloane, Clarke Vargas, 2004). Nurses are particularly susceptible to the development of burnout, mainly because of the nature and the em otional demands of their profession. Nurses experience considerable stress in their job because they have long working hours, a wide range of tasks, interpersonal conflict with patients and their families, doctors, and other co-workers, exposure to death and dying, and noise pollution (Schmitz, Neuman Opperman, 2000; Maslach, Schaufeli Leiter, 2001; Shimizu et al., 2003). Studies have also confirmed that stressful circumstances for hospital nurses are escalating and including work load (Foxall, Zimmerman, Standley Bene, 1990; Healey McKay, 2000; Koivula et al., 2000). Basically, nurses are subjected to many demands in the workplace which include physical demands and the psychological/emotional demands. The physical demands are related to the physical energy required to perform the daily duties of nursing such as transferring patients in and out of bed and lifting patients onto a bed. On the other hand, psychological/emotional demands are related to the emotional energy required to care for patients with chronic illn ess (Van Servellen Leake, 1993). Therefore, nurses who feel overloaded perceive a lack of meaningful connection with the patients. 2.3 Emotional Intelligence (EI) Emotional intelligence (EI) is complementary to cognitive abilities (IQ) (Devrim, Nadi, Mahmut, Mustafa Mustafa Kemal, 2005). Goleman (1995) stated that EI is significant to success. Goleman further explains the difference between people with high IQs who experience difficulties in their personal and professional lives and people with moderate IQs who are very successful in all their endeavours. Emotions are separated from that of the rational mind having independent views and a mind of their own (Freshwater Stickley, 2004). Therefore, one has two minds, a rational mind that thinks and an emotional mind that feels. In conclusion, both the rational mind and emotional mind, store memories and influence our responses, actions, and choices. Furthermore, EI such as academic intelligence can be learned and developed with age (Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2000). Research has shown that people with high EI understand their own and others feelings, know how to manage themselves, deal successfully with others, and respond effectively to work demands (Dulewicz Higgs, 2003; Goleman, 2005). Cooper (1997) stated that people with high levels of EI experience more career success, build stronger personal relationships, lead more effectively, and enjoy better health than those with low EI. Hence, developing EI competencies in existing employees or finding individuals who posses these skills will enhance the organizations bottom line (Goleman, 1998a, 1998b) and ensure long-term success for the company. 2.3.1 Background and Definition of Emotional Intelligence (EI) The idea of EI has its roots in the social intelligences. EI was first proposed by Thorndike in 1921, who noted that it was of value in human interactions and relationships. Gardners (1983) multiple intelligence theory later also contributed to the theory of EI through the identification of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences. Interpersonal intelligence comprised of the ability to understand others and to co-operate with them, whereas intrapersonal intelligence comprised of the ability to be self-aware, to recognize ones own feelings, and to use this to operate successfully in life. However, the term EI was not brought into mainstream psychology until 1990s (Mayer, DiPaolo Salovey, 1990; Salovey Mayer, 1990). Hence, EI is a new construct since the first peer-reviewed article that was published in 1990 (Salovey Mayer, 1990). The concept is also described as a new theory which is still in the initial stage of development and testing (Ashkanasy, Hartel Daus, 2002; Cherniss , Extein, Goleman Weissberg, 2006). As a result, definition of EI varies. Salovey and Mayer (1990) first coined the term of EI and defined EI as the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions. Mayer et al. (2000) further defined EI as an ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and their relationships, and reason and problem-solve on the basis of them. EI is involved in the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion related feelings, understand the information of those emotions, and manage them. However, the concept of EI was popularized by Goleman (1995) through his book Emotional Intelligence, which became a best-selling book for business and education leaders. Goleman (1998a) identified EI as the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships. In addition, Bar-On (2005) defined EI as a cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills, and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demands. In conclusion, recognizing feelings and controlling emotions are described as the core competencies of EI. Individuals who are emotionally intelligent can understand one another and each others views to overcome conflict and avoid damaging the relationship. Therefore, EI is about sensing what others are feelings and handling relationships effectively (Dulewicz Higgs, 2000). Previous research also addressed the relationship between EI and work outcome variables such as stress perceptions in the workplace (Bar-On, Brown, Kirkcaldy Thome, 2000; Nikolaou Tsaousis, 2002), job satisfaction (Wong Law, 2002), job commitment (Nikolaou Tsaousis, 2002), leader effectiveness (Higgs Aitken, 2003), and performance (Lam Kirby, 2002; Van Rooy Viswesvaran, 2004; Lopes, Grewal, Kadis, Gall Salovey, 2006). 2.3.2 Theories of Emotional Intelligence (EI) Since the emergence of the concept of EI in 1990s, many theories have been proposed. Nevertheless, three theories have gained acceptance among scholars and practitioners (Dulewicz, Higgs Slaski, 2003). These three major theoretical constructs each focused on understanding the roles of skills, traits, and abilities in EI (Emmerling Goleman, 2003). EI has been defined as an ability (Salovey Mayer, 1990), a set of traits and abilities (Bar-On, 2005) or a combination of skills and personal competencies (Goleman, 1995). The ability model is based on an individuals ability to use emotion as part of the reasoning process (Mayer et al., 2000). Mayer et al. asserted that EI depends on the ability to process emotional information and to use core abilities related to emotions. Bar-On (2005) conceptualized EI as a set of personality traits and abilities that predict emotional and social adaption within environments. Bar-On also affirmed that EI is teachable and learnable. According to Goleman (1995), EI is a set of learned skills and competencies and this conceptualization is most widely accepted outside academia. Golemans ideas have contributed to the development of leadership models that outline skills and competencies related to emotionally competent leadership (Emmerling Goleman, 2003). Additionally, the literature has evolved into two main categories of EI models: (1) ability model; and (2) mixed model (Feyerherm Rice, 2002). The Salovey and Mayer theory is considered an ability model of EI, while the Bar-On and Goleman theories are considered mixed model of EI (Mayer et al., 2000). Basically, the ability model encapsulates EI as a skill and the mixed model go beyond ability by including additional personality characteristics that leads to certain behavior. 2.3.2.1 Ability Model The ability model of EI is the Salovey and Mayer (1990) model which officially launched the field of EI. Salovey and Mayer viewed EI as an ability that exists, interacts, and complements an individuals cognitive capabilities. Ability theory promotes the relationship between cognition and emotion based on mental abilities (Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2004). Salovey and Mayer conceptualized EI as a set of interrelated skills composed of four branches of abilities, which include: (1) perception and expression of emotion; (2) using emotions to facilitate thought; (3) understanding and analyzing emotions; and (4) managing emotions (Mayer et al., 2004). The four branches can be described as follows: (1) the perceiving emotions branch relates to the ability to detect emotions in oneself and in others; (2) the using emotions branch relates to the ability to use emotions in cognitive activities such as problem solving; (3) the understanding emotions branch relates to the ability to comprehend the complexity of emotional language and emotional relationships; and (4) the managing emotions branch relates to the ability for one to regulate emotions in oneself and in others. The ability model of EI is different from other theories because the model is the only one which utilizes an instrument designed to measure ability (Dulewicz et al., 2003). This model operationalizes EI using ability-based measures: the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MECEIT) (Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2002) and its predecessor, the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) (Salovey Mayer, 1990). The ability tests measure how well people perform tasks and solve emotional problems, as opposed to other EI scales which rely on the individuals subjective assessment of his or her perceived emotional skills. However, ability tests are expensive and require more resources to administer and score. MSCEIT instrument is difficult to score and lacks workplace applicability (Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner Salovey, 2006). Consequently, self-report assessment outnumbers ability tests are more widely used in the mixed models. 2.3.2.2 Mixed Models EI mixed theories highlight the emotional and social functioning of individuals (Goleman, 2005; Bar-On, 2006). Therefore, Bar-On categorizes his model of EI as a key of emotional-social intelligence (ESI). Bar-On (2005) asserted five key competencies are associated with ESI, whereby the five domains of this mixed model are: (1) intrapersonal capacity (the ability to be aware and understand ones own emotions and to express ones feelings and ideas); (2) interpersonal skills (the ability to be aware, understand, and appreciate others feelings as well as to build and maintain effective and satisfying relationships with others); (3) adaptability (the ability to adapt to various situations by effectively managing personal, social, and environmental changes by employing various skills such as problem solving, reality testing, and flexibility); (4) stress management strategies (the ability to manage emotions and to use those emotions to stay motivated and persistent); and (5) motivational an d general mood factors (the ability to be optimistic, to enjoy oneself and others, and to maintain positive feelings) (Bar-On et al., 2000). The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), a self-report measure is considered as the most widely used measure of ESI (Bar-On, 2005). The EQ-i analyzes the concept of emotional and social functioning by measuring a persons ability to deal with daily demands and pressures. People who are taking EQ-i answer questions based on five competencies: (1) intrapersonal skills such as emotional self-awareness, self-regard, self-actualization, or independence; (2) interpersonal skills such as interpersonal relationships, empathy, and social responsibility; (3) adaptability, including problem solving, flexibility, and reality testing; (4) stress management, including tolerance and impulse control; and (5) general mood of optimism and happiness. Goleman developed his mixed model theory of EI by building on the work of Salovey and Mayer, in addition to other researchers in the field (Emmerling Goleman, 2003). Basically, Golemans model of EI can be grouped into personal competencies and social competencies that affect personal success in the workplace. Goleman (2005) stated that a personal competence is the ability to keep self-awareness and manage ones behaviors while a social competence is the ability to understand the behaviors of others and manage relationships effectively. These competencies are described in detail as: (1) self-awareness (knowing ones internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions); (2) self-management (managing ones internal states, impulses, and resources); (3) motivation (emotional tendencies that facilitate reaching goals); empathy (awareness of others feelings, needs, and concerns); and (4) social skills (adeptness at inducing desirable responses in others) (Goleman, 1998a). Based on the emotional competencies identified by Goleman (1998a), the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) was designed to assess EI. ECI is a 360-degree scale which gathers self, subordinate, peer, and supervisory ratings on social and emotional competencies of individuals in organizations. Subsequently, Boyatzis (2007) designed Emotional Social Competency Instrument (ESCI), a multi-rater assessment in real organizational contexts which comprised of four emotional and social competencies, which include: (1) self-awareness; (2) self-management; (3) social awareness; and (4) relationship management. In general, EI mixed models stress performance based on behavioral competencies and personality traits suitable for a wide range of work contexts, job roles, and job levels (Petrides, Furnham Martin, 2004; Goleman, 2005; Boyatzis, 2007). The mixed model is also comprised of other measurement instruments. For examples, measures such as the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT) (Schutte, Malouff, Hall, Haggerty, Cooper, Golden Dornheim, 1998), and Wong and Laws (2002) leadership-focused measure of EI. Many studies in the literature utilize self-report measures of EI based on mixed model perspective that incorporates both disposition and ability (Chan, 2006). According to MacCann, Matthews, Zeidner and Roberts (2003), mixed model scales vastly outnumber ability tests at the stage of EI development, meaning that EI is more commonly assessed as a disposition, rather than as an ability. Additionally, self-report or peer-report measures require less amount of time to com plete and are most cost-effective than the ability based measure. 2.3.3 Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Nursing There is a large body of knowledge related to EI exists outside nursing whereas EI theory and research within nursing is scarce and a more recent phenomenon (Akerjordet Severinsson, 2007; Smith, Profetto-McGrath Cummings, 2009). Smith et al. (2009) conducted a literature review related to EI and nursing during 1995-2007. Smith et al. found only 21 theoretical and 9 empirical articles related to the subject and concluded that although the body of theoretical literature in nursing is growing, scientific research about EI and nursing is just beginning. Apart from that, researches that link EI and nursing are mostly correlation designs using small sample sizes. Akerjordet and Severinsson (2007) asserted that EI has significant implications for nurses quality of work in healthcare. Therefore some qualitative studies have been conducted to explore the concepts and ideas of EI in nursing (Akerjordet Severinsson, 2004; Freshwater Stickley, 2004; Kooker, Shoultz Codier, 2007; Hurley Rankin, 2008). Akerjordet and Severinsson (2004) used qualitative interviews to gain insight into mental health nurses emotional experiences in practice and sought to understand the connection between nurses articulations of emotions in practice and EI concepts. Four main themes emerged from the study, which include: (1) relationship with the patient; (2) the substance of supervision; (3) motivation; and (4) responsibility which are related to different aspects of EI. For instance, relationship with the patient which was a central research finding is linked to EI through the ability to interpret and communicate emotional information. Akerjordet and Severinsson co ncluded that EI implies important personal and interpersonal skills in nurses therapeutic use of self, critical reflection, and stimulates the search for a deeper understanding of professional nursing identity. Additionally, quantitative studies in nursing have linked EI with coping strategies (Rochester, Kilstoff Scott, 2005; Montes-Berges Augusto, 2007) and burnout (Gerits, Derksen, Verbruggen Katzko, 2005). Montes-Berges and Augusto (2007) investigated links between nursing students EI, coping with stress and success at school or work. They indicated that nursing students who possess EI competencies are more likely to manage the pressures of school and continue throughout the nursing programs. The findings further pointed out a moderate correlation between nurses EI and coping within work-related environments. Another study found a clear link between EI and burnout in nurses measured at two different points in time (Gerits et al., 2005). Gerits et al. conducted a two-year longitudinal study on the EI profiles with 380 nurses working in 56 Dutch residential facilities for people with mental retardation. The fewest symptoms of burnout were reported by female nurses with relatively high EI profiles and relatively low social skills. EI has been identified as important for leaders in healthcare environments (Vitello-Cicciu, 2002; Cummings, 2004; McQueen, 2004). Organizational literature supports the notion that strong leaders who know how to manage emotions within complex healthcare systems is needed and will further benefit patient care, nurses, and organizations (Snow, 2001; Herbert Edgar, 2004; Feather, 2009). Emotionally intelligent leaders use emotionally intelligent skill to recognize the professional and emotional needs of colleagues, establish positive relationships with nurses, motivate passion and dedication in the workplace and ultimately influence patient care practices (Vitello-Cicciu, 2003). In a nutshell, emotionally intelligent leaders secure a commitment for excellence in practice through emotionally intelligent relationships that promote improvements in thinking, critical decision making, and care delivery (Strickland, 2000; Snow, 2001; Goleman, 2005). In summary, EI concept is increasingly recognized and is making an appearance in nursing journals (Cadman Brewer, 2001; Evans Allen, 2002; Freshman Rubino, 2002). The literature revealed EI is important and relevant to nursing from both an empirical and a theoretical perspective. EI influences emotion within caring relationships, quality of care and stress management. Emotionally intelligent leaders influence employees retention, quality of patient care, and pati

Intro to Early Childhood Essay

Friedrich William Froebel (1782-1852) had a significant influence on early childhood education as we know it today. He is known as the inventor of kindergarten, a German word meaning â€Å"children’s garden†. The model of the modern day kindergarten was conceived by Froebel, who opened his own kindergarten in 1836, calling it a Play and Activity Institute. There he implmented such practices as promoting a child’s right to play, to have toys, and to be in the care of trained teachers. He believed that education should be pleasant for the child, because of his own unhappy childhood, instead of shifting the role of the teacher from strict disciplinarian to friendly facilitator. Froebel also had the idea that men as well as women should teach, which was not heard of in those times. His system of teaching was centered around self activity and the development of a child’s self- esteem rather than relying on sterile and rigid instructions. (Hewes 1993). Froebel observed the children and came to an understanding of how they learned and what they like to do. It was his belief that children learned much in the process of playing. (Ann Miles Gordon and Kathryn Williams Browne 21, 22) We can see the fruits of Froebel vision alive today in a variety of ways. For example, many early childhood programs are teacher-directed, with the focus being on planting ideas for the children to cultivate in their own time. Also, you may encounter a teacher of the male persuasion in your child’s classroom. Often, teachers in early childhood education are required to pursue some type of training and/or education relating to childcare, which was encouraged by Froebel. ( Ann Miles Gordon and Kathryn Williams Browne 21, 22) Froebel’s philosophy was that life was a school and the world was a classroom. He wanted the environment in which children learn to be full of discovery and adventure. He called the educational toys he created â€Å"gifts†, giving us insight into how he viewed learning and the teaching of the young mind. There are children in kindergarten all over the world thanks to the dedication of Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel. His work is an accomplishment that reflects on the way children are taught and cared for today. (Ann Miles Browne and Kathryn Williams Browne 21,22) Works Cited Gordon, Ann Miles and Kathryn Williams Brown. Beginnings and Beyond-Foundations in Early Childhood Education. 8th ed. California. Wadsworth. 2011, 2008.

Apple Inc. Management - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2754 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2019/08/16 Category Business Essay Level High school Tags: Apple Inc Essay Did you like this example? Introduction: It is no secret that Apple Inc. is one of the most successful companies worldwide, however, many individuals believe that they remain the best company in the world, (https://www.businessinsider.com/how-to-run-your-company-like-apple-2012-2). In order to receive a reputation this strong, both your business plan and style must be perfected. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Apple Inc. Management" essay for you Create order It is easy for outsiders to take a look at the success levels that Apple Inc. has met and provide feedback as a satisfied consumer, however, taking a look at the inside operations of Apple Inc. will leave individuals impressed as well. The management style that Apple chooses to implement is a very effective style and it opens the organization to a great deal of opportunity. Organizational Structure Design Considering all aspects of competition and the need to remain ahead of opponents, Apple takes the confidentiality aspect very seriously. When Steve Jobs was present within the organization, he was very keen when it came to privacy and keeping new ideas under the radar. Making sure that the ideas generated within the organization remained inside the corporation was very important in regards to staying ahead of the competitors; it still is very important today, even with Steve Jobs out of the organizational structure. The CEO of the company plays a very dominant part when it comes to organizational structure. The CEO, Tim Cook, provides guidance and structure for the next tier of employees, which happens to make up the executive team for Apple Inc.. Cook also has a direct communication with VPs whom report to Cook. After the tier of six individuals who fill the position of VPs that are reporting to Cook, falls the majority of the VPs for Apple Inc. which refer to the VPs one tier up for assistance or guidance. The type of structure that Jobs had implemented into Apple Inc. was very unique at the time and seemed to be very effective in the sense of success. Everything that went into and out of the corporation went directly through Steve Jobs office. The way that this is set up provides the CEO with the majority of duties and some individuals had said to believe that all of the company-drive should be split up and weighed out a little differently. (https://intothelook.wordpress.com/2013/11/24/organizational-structure-of-apple/) The VPs within the organization provide a good example of function-based grouping, (https://panmore.com/apple-inc-organizational-structure-features-pros-cons) which means that each individual has a task, or business function, in which they are focused on. This provides a sense of expertise for just about every business function within the organization. On the other hand, the lower tier take on a product-based grouping (https://panmore.com/apple-inc-organizational-structure-features-pros-cons) theme that uses a vice president for both different outputs and inputs. Steve Jobs had it set up in a way that he had the final say in a lot of decision-making and a ton of responsibility in regards to the process of innovation and creation. When Tim Cook took over, he implemented a few changes that were focused primarily around the level of collaboration. Rather than Tim Cook having the first and final say on controversial or decision-making issues, more employees now have a say. Though Tim Cook still has the spoke-and-wheel hierarchy (https://panmore.com/apple-inc-organizational-structure-features-pros-cons) feel within the workplace, the small alterations made seem to be showing a positive effect on Apple Inc. The type of departmentalization in which Apple implements is territorial departmentalization, which in more simple meaning, stands for an organization that chooses to group products by product line. Apple incorporates a high level of departmentalization. There are a handful of advantages, along with a handful of disadvantages that go alongside departmentalization by territories. An advantage that belongs to territorial departmentalization is that it places responsibility at a lower level [and] places emphasis on local markets and problems, (https://iedunote.com/departmentalization-by-territory.), while a disadvantage could be considered the fact that you must maintain a handful of employees that provide expertise in their abilities to be an effective manager. INTER/INTRA ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSESS Over the years, Apple Inc. has adopted a mechanistic organization versus an organic organization; this was inherited by the centralization within the organization and the standardization aspect that Apple heavily relies on. Apple easily applies the mechanistic structure into their organization due to their mass-production of technology-based products and their chosen and developed leadership style. Strategy The Porter Analysis is done by analyzing five aspects of a business, these aspects are: industry rivalries, the threat of new entries, the power of suppliers, the power of customers and the threat of substitutes. Being such a technology-based company in such a tech-based era, Apple has encountered a handful of successful competitors; this takes a little bit of power away from Apple. Though Apple has remained on top of their competitors thus far, they must remain reasonable in a sense of pricing and staying fair due to the ability for consumers to make purchases from their common competitors, such as Samsung. In regards to the potential of new entrants, Apple sits pretty comfortably. It would not be feasible for a company to start up in such a technology-based market and end up level with Apple. The market that Apple Inc. lies in would take both a great deal of time and a great deal of money for a competitor to enter. Apple provides a decent barrier, which is attractive to the investors eye. The power of customers is driven by a handful of aspects such as how many buyers or customers a company has, how significant each customer is, and how much it would cost a customer to switch from one company to another, (https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/porter.asp). Apple Inc. holds a pretty dominant stand when taking a look at the number of consumers that they have. Apple provides very good quality products to their consumers, so the cost in switching from one company to another may not be a smart decision considering the decrease in quality that they could be taking. The power of suppliers may be Apples biggest downfall. Apple has a lengthy list of suppliers that are located both in and out of the United States. Considering that Apple relies on 200+ suppliers, their suppliers hold a lot of power, however, they do have a lengthy list, which spreads out the amount that Apple depends on each individual supplier. Apple has a comfortable stand in regards to the threat of substitutes. Apple provides consumers with very high quality products that can perform a handful of tasks; therefore it would not be easy or feasible to find a product that can out-perform an Apple Inc. product. Of the five forces that the Porter Analysis takes into account, this would be one of Apples most comfortable positions. CEO Tim Cook implemented Apples most current vision statement: We believe that we are on the face of the earth to make great products and thats not changing. We are constantly focusing on innovating. We believe in the simple not the complex. We believe that we need to own and control the primary technologies behind the products that we make, and participate only in markets where we can make a significant contribution. We believe in saying no to thousands of projects, so that we can really focus on the few that are truly important and meaningful to us. We believe in deep collaboration and cross-pollination of our groups, which allow us to innovate in a way that others cannot. And frankly, we dont settle for anything less than excellence in every group in the company, and we have the self- honesty to admit when were wrong and the courage to change. And I think regardless of who is in what job those values are so embedded in this company that Apple will do extremely well. Apple is a company that will continue reaching for success and growth within their profitable organization, the vision statement implemented really breaks that down and simplifies it in a sense of what the company values and is looking to obtain. The vision statement is a very detailed piece of work that puts into perspective their business plan and marketing strategies. Apples mission statement has also been a piece of work that underwent changes and alterations over the years. The current mission statement is: Apple designs Macs, the best personal computers in the world, along with OS X, iLife, iWork and professional software. Apple leads the digital music revolution with its iPods and iTunes online store. Apple has reinvented the mobile phone with its revolutionary iPhone and App store, and is defining the future of mobile media and computing devices with iPad. Within the mission statement, Apple is outlining all of the devices that they are well known for. They used this opportunity to capitalize on what they do and the quality products that they put out while attempting to out-shine their competition. Apple makes their intentions for the future of their organization very clear within the mission statement, they are in a sense saying that they are not done taking steps forward and they will continue to further develop as time goes on. Apples mission statement is a very powerful piece of work and it was designed to outshine competitors. Apple is a company that takes their corporate social responsibilities (CSR) very seriously, as just about any multinational company attempts to do. Apple has greatly satisfied and fulfilled their company stakeholders and their CSR. Apples success is largely influenced by their stakeholder groups, which consist of their consumers, employees, investors and employees of suppliers and distributors (https://panmore.com/apple-inc-stakeholders-csr-analysis). Apple puts a huge emphasis on the satisfaction of their stakeholders. Consumers remain categorized as Apples highest level of importance. They aim to keep their consumers satisfied and are constantly looking out for the next best thing that Apple Inc. has up its sleeves. Apple also strives to preserve everything that is produced at an acceptable price level. Apple also takes part in a handful of programs, such as one for recycling, which provides reassurance of corporate social responsibilities. Apple puts their employees as their second priority in a sense of their stakeholders. These stakeholders remain loyal based on compensation and career development. Apple strives to treat their employees very well and they provide competitive wages, along with great opportunities for development. Not only does Apple Inc. provide competitive wages and great career development aspects, they also provide very good compensation packages to their employees. Investors also remain very important to Apple, as they do any corporation. Apple Inc. provides their investors with very appealing aspects in regards to investing such as high profit margins and very strong and competitive financial positioning. It becomes very attractive to investors when a company is labeled as one of the most lucrative companies worldwide. As previously mentioned, Apple also takes their CSR very seriously, which is yet another aspect that attracts investors. Apples employees of suppliers and distributors make up the indirect stakeholders that the company preserves. These individuals are treated comparably to their employees; they receive competitive wages and countless benefits. Apple looks out for their employees and their suppliers and distributors by making sure that they are well taken care of. Apple has a Supplier Code of Conduct. The company monitors and imposes requirements on the employment practices of firms in its supply chain. Part of Apples policy is to terminate business relations with suppliers that continue to fail or refuse to satisfy this Code of Conduct. Apples 2014 assessment of suppliers shows that 92% of suppliers now comply with the 60-hour workweek rule, (https://panmore.com/apple-inc-stakeholders-csr-analysis). Apples industry strategy The corporate strategy that makes Apple stand apart from their competitors is differentiation in various aspects. Apple strives to create a product of quality that is going to stand out to consumers. Not only is the American multinational technology company striving to create a product that will stand out, however, they are also putting a huge emphasis on market expansion. Apple products are created with such advanced technology that leaves consumers very satisfied. Apples firm-level strategies. Leadership Tim Cook takes on and displays the situational leadership theory, meaning that there is not one, singular leadership theory that he goes by. Cook alters the style of leadership that he is going to take on regarding various factors such as the magnitude of the issue, the segment that he is working with and the sequential order of events. However, until Cook recently altered the leadership style that Apple implemented, Jobs had put into effect an unconventional leadership style, he strived to push employees to think deeper, using more complexity and he was very blunt to criticize. Both leadership styles have contributed to the great level of success that Apple Inc. has encountered. As many successful businesses, Apple considers Maslows hierarchy of needs and places a heavy focus on the needs listed. Apple takes all-levels into high consideration. They have fulfilled their employee needs of physiological by setting an average salary of $108,483 which basically can ensure survival, (https://managementofapple.wordpress.com/motivation/), this is a very high average pay and can undoubtedly ensure survival factors. As mentioned earlier, Apple Inc. also provides their employees with incomparable benefits, which also meets priority needs alongside a competitive salary. While Apple meets Maslows lower-order, important needs, they also meet the higher-order needs. Apple provides a great deal of positive feedback to their employees, not only feedback, but employees can also receive salary increases and bonuses for preforming well on the job. Apple takes recognition within their organization very seriously and will not hesitate to reward an outstanding employee, which meets the sense of self-actualization on Maslows hierarchy. Any company that places such a threat on competitors within the market segment must provide their employees with a high level of motivation in order to ensure that they are providing their best work for the company. Human Resources Apple has a very successful human resources department with very exclusive techniques, of which they actually prefer to release minimal information on. Apples HR representatives are trained to put an immense amount of effort into recruiting; they spend a lot of time recruiting the most superior employees from other firms, frequently competitors (https://management-training-guru.com/2013/12/hr-strategy-at-apple-make-their-employees-creative-and-innovative/). Apple displays their open job opportunities on their company website as well to provide a competitive entry and appeal to all individuals. Apple incorporates a different style of training than a lot of other companies; they actually hold a number of training classes referred to as Apple University. Throughout Apple University, you learn the ins-and-outs of the company, all of the way from the history to the perceived future. Upon completion, you receive a diploma that recognizes your contribution to the training and development program. Though this seems to be a different style of training and development, it has definitely seemed to be effective ever since the university was put into play. As far as the performance appraisal process within the organization goes, the individuals who are deemed to be the best fit for the position are selected and are moved into the interview process, where they will start of with a practical exam and their skill sets will be evaluated. If the exam goes well and their skills seem to meet the level that Apple is searching for within the employee, they will go through rounds of face-to-face interviewing, where levels will depend on the position in which the individual is applying for. After being selected for the position, an employee for Apple will sit down with them and go over the benefits, pay and a further job description. After the individual accepts the job, they will take place in training and will in due time be moved into their given position where they will be evaluated again. (https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-recruiting-and-hiring-process-of-Apple-How-does-one-contact-their-HR-department) My Perspective I personally would unquestionably be interested in joining Apple Inc. as an employee. I believe that they treat their employees very well and the benefits are incomparable. Their training and development opportunity is very appealing to me as well. The aspect of Apple Inc. that I liked the most is that employees receive recognition and even benefits and/or advancements for their hard work within the organization. The aspect that I disliked the most was the fact that the hiring process seems to be very long and in a sense drug out, however, that is to be expected when applying to be a part of such an exceptional corporation.